Fig.3

Immunomodulation of mesenchymal stem cells in chronic kidney disease. MSCs can influence many cytokines and immune cells by secreting exosomes with over 1500 secretomes. MSCs can increase interleukin-4 (IL-4) and IL-10, while decreasing IL-6, IL-12, IL-17, tumor necrosis factor –α (TNF-α) and interferon-γ (IFN-γ). MSCs can stimulate anti-inflammatory immune cells including regulatory T cells (Tregs), regulatory B cells (Bregs), M2-type macrophages, and CD1c⁺ dendritic cells (DCs). MSCs can suppress pro-inflammatory immune cells including plasma cells, M1-type macrophages, natural killer (NK) cells, and follicular helper T (Tfh) cells. Besides, MSCs may change the balance of helper T (Th) cells by promoting Th2 cells, while inhibiting Th1 and Th17 cells