Table 5 Subgroup analysis reported by the included studies

Zhang 2023 (Tianjin Chronic Low-grade Systemic Inflammation and Health

Cohort Study)

Sex

Men HR: 1.51 (1.31, 1.73)

Women HR: 1.40 (1.04, 1.88)

MAFLD definition included only one metabolic abnormality

HR: 1.44 (1.27, 1.63)

eGFR was calculated using the CKD-EPI equation

HR: 1.46 (1.28, 1.65)

40–70 year old participants

HR: 1.73 (1.46, 2.05)

Healthy lifestyle factors

0–1 healthy lifestyle factors HR: 2.08 (1.51, 2.88)

2 healthy lifestyle factors HR: 1.65 (1.34, 2.04)

3–4 healthy lifestyle factors HR: 1.21 (1.01, 1.45)

Zhang 2023 (UK Biobank Study)

Sex

Men HR: 1.54 (1.37, 1.74)

Women HR: 2.04 (1.75, 2.39)

MAFLD definition included only one metabolic abnormality

HR: 1.71 (1.55, 1.89)

eGFR was calculated using the CKD-EPI equation

HR: 1.67 (1.52, 1.83)

CKD genetic risk score

Low HR: 2.17 (1.80, 2.62)

Intermediate HR: 1.71 (1.44, 2.03)

High HR: 1.87 (1.61, 2.18)

Healthy lifestyle factors

0–1 healthy lifestyle factors HR: 1.89 (1.46, 2.46)

2 healthy lifestyle factors HR: 1.75 (1.47, 2.08)

3–4 healthy lifestyle factors HR: 1.63 (1.43, 1.87)

Wei 2023

Sex

Men HR: 1.16 (1.07–1.26)

Women HR: 1.32 (1.18–1.48)

Age

< 60 years HR: 1.32 (1.22–1.42)

≥ 60 years HR: 1.04 (0.91–1.19)

Hypertension

Yes HR: 1.27 (1.13–1.42)

No HR: 1.22 (1.13–1.33)

Dyslipidemia

Yes HR: 1.31 (1.20–1.42)

No HR: 1.11 (0.99–1.24)

Overweight

Yes HR: 1.23 (1.15–1.32)

No HR: 1.32 (1.06–1.65)

Diabetes

Yes HR: 1.35 (1.15–1.59)

No HR: 1.22 (1.13–1.33)

Tanaka 2023

Severity of MAFLD

Metabolic dysfunction 0 h: 0.78 (0.59–1.02)

Metabolic dysfunction 1 h: 1.17 (1.01–1.38)

Metabolic dysfunction 2 h: 1.15 (1.02–1.31)

Metabolic dysfunction 3 h: 1.52 (1.04–2.22)

Kwon 2023

Overweight

High HR: 2.94 (1.91–4.55)

Low HR: 2.14 (1.15–3.97)

Diabetes

Yes HR: 2.20 (1.67–2.90)

No HR: 1.39 (1.18–1.65)

Liang 2022

Excessive alcohol consumption

RR: 1.09 (0.69–1.73)

With Hepatitis B virus infection

RR: 1.35 (0.78–2.35)

Jung 2022

Age

< 60 years HR: 1.41 (1.31–1.52)

≥ 60 years HR: 1.38 (1.30–1.47)

Sex

Men HR: 1.38 (1.30–1.46)

Women HR: 1.37 (1.27–1.48)

Overweight

Yes HR: 1.34 (1.27–1.41)

No HR: 1.33 (1.17–1.51)

Diabetes

Yes HR: 1.41 (1.30–1.52)

No HR: 1.37 (1.30–1.46)

Low-density lipoprotein mg/dl

< 100 h: 1.39 (1.28–1.50)

> 100 h: 1.38 (1.30–1.46)

Alcohol use

Yes HR: 1.35 (1.20–1.52)

No HR: 1.40 (1.33–1.47)

Hashimoto 2022

With eGFR of ≥ 75 mL/ min/1.73 m²

HR 1.57 (1.22–2.02)

With eGFR < 60 mL/ min/1.73 m²

HR 1.24 (1.11–1.38)

With proteinuria

HR 1.95 (1.47–2.59)

Using the high waist circumference with Japanese criteria of metabolic syndrome

HR 1.24 (0.96–1.61)